UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS

WHY STUDY RESEARCH METHODS?

n Leaders rely on research to make decisions

n Must be able to sort/evaluate info

n Often conduct research in job

n Lifestyle decisions based on research

n Need to read/report research for classes

Empirical Research

n Simple observations can be misleading

n Plan systematic observation (so not misled)

Ø Why observe - need for study (purpose/significance)

Ø Who observe - population or a sample of one, not biased against any subgroup (subjects)

Ø How observe - tests, interviews, surveys, direct observation (measurement in numbers or words)

Ø When observe - existing groups or experimental ones (descriptive or cause and effect research design)

n Process is to describe existing situation (literature), produce new data (empirical data collection), draw conclusions

Experimental Versus
Non-Experimental Studies

n Experiments – treat then observe changes in behavior – to establish cause and effect

ØTwo groups assigned at random (equal chance to be in either group)

ØTreatment group (experimental group) behavior observed versus control group behavior

ØQuasi-experimental (causal-comparative) has no randomization

ØRandomization essential in TRUE experiments!!!

Non-Experimental Research

n No treatments given

n Observe and describe

ØOften called descriptive research

n The type of measurement used does not indicate whether or not research is experimental

n Cause and effect determined by true experiments, only suggested by quasi

Experimental Versus
Causal Comparative Studies

n Experiments establish cause and effect

ØOften unable to experiment due to legal, ethical, physical, financial reasons

n Alternatives ► Quasi-Experimental

ØSee an effect that has occurred

ØLook at past to determine cause

(ex post facto research)

ØUse controls such as matching

Dangers in Quasi-Experimental Studies

(aka Causal-Comparative)

n Common cause for both the cause and the effect being investigated

Østress causes smoking and cancer

n Difficult to establish that experimental and control groups are equivalent

n Essentially observational or descriptive, BUT goes a step further to explore causality

Types Of Non-Experimental Research

n Causal Comparative (quasi-experimental) – describe existing differences, try to identify cause

n Survey/poll (descriptive) – observe and describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors (can be self-observation)

n Case study – in depth study of one case (individ/group)

n Field research (ethnography) – observe groups in depth

n Longitudinal research – observe same subjects over a long time period

n Correlational – observe relationships, make predictions

n Historical – examine existing data to test hypotheses

REVIEW QUESTIONS

n What does empirical research mean?

n What is the purpose of experimental research?

n What is the difference in experimental and causal comparative (or quasi-experimental) research?

n What is the difference between experimental and non-experimental research?

n If I conduct a study of students to determine their attitudes toward tuition rates, what type of study is this?

Variables In Non-Experimental Research

n Variable – A trait that can vary/change

ØCategorical variables (gender)

§ Mutually exclusive (no overlapping categories)

§ Exhaustive (all possible choices provided)

ØQuantitative variables (GPA)

§ Measure in real numbers

n Independent versus dependent

ØCause is independent

Variables In Experimental Studies

n Experiments have AT LEAST one independent variable (IV) and one dependent variable (DV)

n Experiments investigate how a change in the IV affects the DV

Ø IV is manipulated and change in the DV is measured

Ø Non-experimental studies have no manipulation

n Simple experiment = one IV and one DV

Ø Complex = more than one IV or DV

REVIEW QUESTIONS

n What type of variable (Categorical or Quantitative) is gender? test score? race? times logged on to the library site?

n What is an independent variable (IV)?

n What is a dependent variable (DV)?

n If I want to examine whether incentives affect productivity, what variable is the IV (and DV)?

Research Hypotheses, Purposes, And Questions

n Research hypothesis predicts the outcome of a study

ØDirectional (one group will score higher)

§ Direction is based on previous research

§ Null hypothesis tested statistically

ØNon-directional (a difference will be found)

§ Research purpose or research question often used here

§ Research questions should be interesting

(how groups differ, not simply do they differ)

Operational Definitions

n Conceptual or constitutive – dictionary meaning

n Operational – specific steps used to measure the variable

ØA matter of degree

ØStrive to allow replication of the study

ØReplication by other researchers enhances confidence in results

REVIEW QUESTIONS

n What is a research hypothesis?

n It is hypothesized that athletes will have higher GPAs than non-athletes. Is this a research question or a hypothesis?

n Explain the difference between operational and conceptual or constitutive definitions.

n If I define intelligence as the number of minutes it takes a person to solve a puzzle, is this a conceptual or operational definition?

Quantitative v. Qualitative Research (Part I)

n Quantitative

Ø Deductive (read literature, deduce hypothesis, test)

Ø Structured measures (surveys use numbers)

Ø Large sample (subjects); generalize to population

Ø Researcher removed from process

n Qualitative

Ø Inductive (observe local situation, propose theory)

Ø Unstructured data collection (words/themes)

Ø Small sample; limit conclusions to group studied

Ø Researcher involved (participants); individual quotes

Quantitative v. Qualitative Research (Part II)

n Research Questions (RQ) dictate type

ØIf RQ unclear or little is known in literature, may need qualitative

n Time/Money/Subject availability

ØLimited subject availability means quantitative

ØQualitative takes more time and money

n Often combine both

ØInitial qualitative investigation leads to quantitative

REVIEW QUESTIONS

n If I want to determine how much people tend to pay for new cars, is this likely to be quantitative or qualitative research?

n If I want to see why police officers fail to give DUI tickets to drivers who are obviously impaired, is this better suited to qualitative or quantitative?

n Surveys tend to what kind of research?

n What type of research has the greatest potential for researcher bias?

Program Evaluation

n Evaluation Research (not usually experimental)

ØApplied (not basic) research

ØIncludes needs assessment (of those served)

n Formative – evaluate (modify) during program

ØProcess is evaluated (how implementing)

ØProgress is evaluated (goal attainment)

n Summative – end of program goal attainment (may have comparison group)

Ethical Considerations in Research

n Standards followed in research community

Ø Protect subjects from physical/psychological harm

Ø Review committees used for legal protection

n Subjects have rights (privacy, confidentiality, knowledge of purpose)

Ø Informed consent required (tell general purpose/benefits; procedures used; potential harm; right to withdraw/refuse without penalty)

Ø Debriefing needed after study (review purpose; offer to share results; assure confidentiality)

n Hidden purpose often needed (ethical dilemmas)

Role of Theory in Research

n Theory – unified explanation for discrete observations

n Researchers test theories

ØDeduce hypotheses from theories and test with observations (confirm/reject hypothesis – quantitative mainly)

ØInduce theory from observations (called grounded theory – used in qualitative)

REVIEW QUESTIONS

n What is the difference between formative and summative evaluation?

n What are the rights of subjects in research?

n Explain the concept of informed consent:

n Deducing hypotheses to test theories is done in quantitative or qualitative research?

REVIEWING LITERATURE
(first step in planning research)

n Start with broad problem area

n Review both theoretical and research literature

n Helps narrow scope and develop research questions or hypotheses to test

n Can replicate other studies (mimic original)

Ø Modified replication (new/modified population/instrument)

Ø Focus on conflict identified in literature

Benefits to Reviewing Literature

Ø Identify measurement instruments to use

Ø Avoid dead-ends and wasted efforts

Ø Learn how to write research reports

n Cite relevant literature in the Introduction

Ø provides context for reader and justifies doing study

n Reviewing literature demonstrates your expertise (located it, used it in planning, cited it correctly)

Locating Literature Electronically

n Articles are more up-to-date than books

n ERIC, PsychLit, SocioFile (discussed in textbook)

n Infotrac (OneFile), ABI-Inform (our library)

n Each article is a record, made of fields (title, author, date, descriptors)

n Best searching requires good descriptors

n Use of Boolean Operators (AND, OR, NOT) helps to narrow searches

Organizing a Literature Review

• Describe broad problem area and define major terms

• Establish importance of topic by

– Citing other research that shows it is important enough to study

– Citing statistics showing broad application of topic

• Write topic-by-topic description (w/ headings/subhds)

– Group references together when about a common topic

– Include both methods used and results found in previous studies

– Sometimes need to trace the history of topic

– Summarize the topic at the end and indicate relevance to your study

Writing Literature Reviews

(Note that this is NOT a series of reports on articles/books)

n The lit. review is a CRITICAL assessment of literature on a topic

n Your assessment of the studies reviewed should show through in your discussion of them

– Discuss both weak and strong points of studies reviewed

Twelve key points to pay attention to in writing up Literature Reviews

1. Each paragraph should be organized around a topic (first sentence of each paragraph is the topic sentence!)

2. Cite together numerous authors making the same point

3. Large number of authors w/ same point, use e.g. plus just a few authors

4. Might devote a whole paragraph to important and central sources

5. Provide specific definitions for technical terms

6. Use direct quotes for definitions (and cite appropriately w/ p. # or para. #)

7. Use quotations sparingly

8. Use transitional terms/phrases (As a consequence…; therefore…)

9. On parallel points, use First, Second, Last…

10. For a brief list of items in text, use (a), (b), etc.

11. Give details on research methods to explain differences in findings

12. Follow style manual for citing references carefully and consistently (APA)

Citing References

• Harvard method (using author, date referencing) is the most common

• APA uses it and gives guidelines in APA manual

• Key characteristics (see text Examples 1-5)

– Last name can be subject of sentence (emphasizes authorship)

– Content can be subject (authors not emphasized)

– Use authors as subject when compare/contrast

– Reference list includes only those cited in text!

REVIEW QUESTIONS

n What’s the first step in reviewing the literature?

n What are the benefits of reviewing the literature

n What purpose do citations serve?

n Why are refereed articles so important in reviewing the literature?

n Explain the difference between an annotated bibliography and a written literature review: